Religion, Literature and Thought in India
Basic Religious Concepts in Hinduism
The Literature of Hinduism
The Beliefs of Classic Hinduism
The Gods of Hinduism
Sacred Places, Temples and Pilgrimage
The Kshatriyas’ Response to the Brahmans: Buddhism and Jainism
The Monotheistic Religions
Appendices
About the Author
Introduction
The Guides to Religion and Culture at present include Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam. The purpose of this series is to provide education and understanding of the religious traditions in our increasingly linked world.
These volumes are written as an anthropology of religion, and I have attempted to state the beliefs, practices, and histories in words that are consistent with each religious tradition. I have provided historical, social, and cultural information to define the context within which each religion has come into being and developed as a living society today. To the extent possible, I have discussed and reviewed these materials with religious scholars and believers from each tradition although I recognize that there are internal differences in belief and practice within religions, and I have tried to reflect those in a correct manner.
Belief and behavior are at the heart of our self-definition as human individuals and the emotional core of our identity. Our religious and/or ideological identity is so important that
it shapes major life decisions. This series is published recognizing the powerful importance of religious belief and practice among us as humans, respecting and honoring the uniqueness
of the spiritual nature that defines us.
Religion, Literature, and Thought in India
Life and thought in India has been rich in metaphysics, and the metaphysical world of the spirit has been the primary force shaping Indian culture and civilization. The religions of India philosophically question the nature of existence and non-existence. The godly presence is abstract and ambivalent, rather than being about godly power and omniscience. Spirituality goes beyond sectarianism, so it is more than simply being a devotee of one of the Hindu gods. Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists focus on the metaphysical world and the escape from the constraints of the physical world. They see the spiritual world as the only true world, and the physical world of body and possessions is a negative drag on the spirit. India is a motherland of holy places, a sacred landscape, rather than a political kingdom holding people together by force.
Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world after Christianity and Islam, and it has almost 900 million followers. It is a religion that has drawn from the beliefs of both Dravidians and Indo-Europeans, and it is the oldest extant religion in the world today. Like a whale of great age with a barnacle encrusted skin, this religion shows its accumulated experience with layers of gods, beliefs, and shrines that reflect its various influences. Although the roots of Hinduism’s evolution can be detected in early ritual figures from the Indus civilization, which depict a Shiva-like figure, the first clear connections come from the Rig-Veda of the Indo-Europeans.
Brahma replaced the action-oriented nature gods. Religious thought turned away from this world to the world of karma and samsara. This denial of the world is not typical of Indo-European groups, and it may have been a Dravidian view of life adopted into the new Indian society, which resulted from the fusion of the invaders with the indigenous people.
The Indo-European groups were characterized by polytheism, and each had a complex pantheon of nature gods. The Greco-Roman pantheon is the best known example of this Indo-European tradition, but the Indian pantheon is very similar. The oldest Indo- European gods from the Rig-Veda are Dyaus Pitar the sky father god (Zeus of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans), Prithivi Matar the earth mother goddess (Gaia Mater of the Greeks), and Mitra the god of morality and faith (Mithra of the Iranians). But, the more dramatic deities are the gods of the natural environment of India, and some of these have been adapted from earlier Indo-European gods. Two of the important nature gods of early India were Indra and Rudra.
Indra was the god of storms who wielded the mighty thunderbolt. Rain storms were important because they ended the dry season, but Indra was also the god of war. Since he could destroy the enemies of the Indo-Europeans with his thunderbolt, he was their ally, and they gave him special homage. Varuna was the god of water and rain, and Surya the god of the sun, both essential elements to agricultural people. Rudra was the mountain god, but the Indo-Europeans were afraid of him because of the destructive storms that he could send out of the Himalayas destroying their settlements and lives. At the same time Rudra could be a healer, and the medicinal plants of the mountains were associated with him. The character of being a destroyer and a life saver simultaneously was later absorbed by the great god of later Hinduism, Shiva the Destroyer and Life Giver.
Another god from the Rig-Veda that would survive into later Hinduism was Vishnu the sun or sky god. Agni was the god of fire, either on the earth or in the sky, but he was particularly present in the altar fire. As a cleanser and purifier, Agni removed evil and drove bad spirits away. Agni brought light and guidance and symbolized well-being. As the Indo-Europeans (Aryans) adopted agriculture and began living in permanent villages, their religion evolved from their war and storm gods to a religious system that reflected their new agricultural lifestyle. A rich literature recorded these events and today defines the standards of religious belief and practice.
Hinduism is based on the central religious beliefs of samsara, karma, dharma, and moksha. These are intertwined to produce an integrated view of life and set of principles about how to live. Reincarnation or samsara (also called transmigration of souls) is the
rebirth of the soul after death. Rebirth follows rebirth in what might seem like a continuous circle or wheel. In fact, it is sometimes called the “wheel of rebirth”. The soul may be reborn on this earth in vegetable, animal, or human form, or it may be reborn outside of this world. Not only do humans have a cycle of rebirths, but the universe itself also has cycles of creation and destruction, which run in the millions of years. Samsara says that each of us can reach Nirvana (spiritual balance) if we live with proper spiritual and moral integrity. However, if we do not reach that high standard, we will continue to be reborn until we attain a spiritually fulfilled life. We may be born into a higher station in the next life or a lower one depending on our actions in this life, depending on the Law of Karma, which says that the accumulation of ones deeds and thoughts affects the next rebirth.
Karma, the accumulation of our actions, will affect our standing in the next life. This is the moral and ethical backbone of Hindu thought, and it suggests the unitary orderliness of life. Life and existence are perceived to be one unitary whole, and humans are one aspect of the whole of existence. Every individual is responsible for the consequences of his or her actions, and how well we exercise the responsibility of life that we have been given becomes our karma. Finally, moksha is the liberation or salvation from the wheel of rebirth in life. If we have lived our lives correctly and reached spiritual balance, we can attain liberation from this life and go to Nirvana. We can achieve moksha, which comes through spiritual union with the high god Brahma, who is the whole of existence.
Nirvana is the state of perfect spiritual balance in the afterlife, it is the void, the spiritual life in the emptiness of the beyond. One achieves that special spiritual state by freeing oneself from the physical and material constraints of this life, but moral rectitude or dharma is also important. Although the world is seen as basically good, the emphasis on metaphysical or spiritual issues is greater. The ultimate value in Hinduism is the freeing of the spirit.
Although freedom of the spirit is most important in a Hindu’s spiritual life, rational morality in life is still critical. Dharma means right or virtuous conduct in Hinduism and Buddhism, and it refers back to the early concept of rita, meaning right. The gods were thought to preserve the world, not only from physical disruption but more importantly from metaphysical chaos. The idea that good or right is controlled by a superior force sounds similar to the Western idea of natural law. Dharma or right conduct means fulfilling one’s caste obligations, which leads to the good of the community and the individual.
The parallel emphasis on freedom of the spirit, which is other worldly and dharma, which is imminently of this world may appear to be contradictory, but in fact they
constitute the twin components of complete self-realization of oneness with the cosmos. Moral decisions on earth become fused with the highest metaphysical values. The individual is fused with the universe in a monist union of personal will with the righteous order. Ethics and morality become an exercise in spiritual truth.
Hindu sacred literature is a broad sometimes seemingly meandering body of writings on life and spirituality, and it defines how to move through the cycle of rebirth toward Nirvana. It covers a wide range of material from the action stories of the Indo-European invasion to stories justifying the caste system, descriptions of rituals, and abstract philosophical statements on the nature of being. The oldest of this literature can be traced back 3,500 years in its oral form.
There are four Vedas, each of, which is a book recording either epic histories or the philosophical truths of the period. The Rig-Veda records events from 4000 years ago and reflects early Indo-European (Aryan) values and legends. It tells the stories of the Indo- European invasion of India and the conquest of the Dravidian peoples in a long epic poem. In contrast to this narrative veda, each of the others covers a specific area of knowledge. The largely prose Yajur-Veda is a prayer book, which includes prayers and litanies to be used as devotional material. The Sama-Veda is a song book, and it contains chants to be sung along with sacrificial libations of the intoxicating drink soma . The Atharva-Veda is a book of magical incantations, curses, and spells that may be used as people deal with their basic daily fears, passions, hatreds or anger, and distress. The Vedas include knowledge that ranges from the distant epic struggles in the beginning of time to ritual practices and songs for worship to something so banal as an incantation to protect your property. The Vedas constitute the oldest classical literature of the Hindu tradition.
likely secular in origin, but by the time it was written down in the third century C.E. it had taken on religious significance. It is the world’s longest poem, consisting of close to one hundred thousand couplets. It mixes religion and heroism in the form of origins stories. It tells the story of a monumental battle fought on the plains of the Ganges near Delhi between two sets of cousins who are pretenders to the throne. Inserted within the Mahabharata is an independent work, the Bhagavad Gita, which was placed at a special place within the larger work.
As Krishna explains caste duty to Arjuna, he is explaining it to all Hindus. While caste duties may have been originally defined for the good of society, in the Bhagavad Gita duty is defined as a moral good irregardless of the consequences of the actions. Right conduct or dharma is the carrying out of caste responsibilities and will lead to moksha or salvation from rebirth on the wheel of life. Morality is defined in terms of honoring caste duties for the general welfare of the society. The Bhagavad Gita is a clear statement that a person must be completely faithful to their caste, and it provides a guideline for how to live daily life. This Gita emphasizes the importance of human agency because our actions determine our destiny.
when Rama was away hunting. He took her to Lanka and kept her locked in his palace. When Rama returned, he did not have a clue as to what happened to Sita, but the monkey people had seen Sita being taken away and came to Rama’s help. Hanuman, the monkey hero, searched the whole world until he found Sita in Lanka. The monkey warriors assaulted the island fortress, but finally Rama and Ravanna engaged in celestial combat, and Ravanna was killed.
Indian custom said that a woman who had lived in the house with another man could never return to her husband. Sita proved her chastity by throwing herself into a bonfire, but the god Agni rescued her unharmed. The traditional story says that Rama still could not accept her by custom, and that they were forced to live apart forever. However, more recent versions of the Ramayana have said that they were reconciled, that Rama was made king, and that they lived happily ever after. Over time some people came to consider Rama as one of the ten earthly manifestations (avatars) of Vishnu and therefore a god, however, others see this story as the defining myth of India’s belief in family loyalties rather than a story of a god. The Ramayana has inspired many different written versions over the centuries, painted representations, and dramatic live presentations as well as radio and television versions. It is popular not only in India but also across South Asia where Indian influence has spread from Indonesia to Thailand.
subjective, including our soul, our inner most self, our feelings, and our self consciousness. The soul or inner self is the atman, and it is the point of unity with all existence.
Knowledge of the atman, of one’s unity with existence, leads to freedom from desire in this life. Rabindranath Tagore says about the soul,
According to the Upanishads, the key to cosmic consciousness, to God-consciousness, is in the consciousness of the soul. To know our soul apart from the self is the first step towards the realization of the supreme deliverance. We must know with absolute certainty that essentially we are spirit. This we can do by winning mastery over self, by rising above all pride and greed and fear, by knowing that worldly losses and physical death can take nothing away from the truth and the greatness of our soul.
Realizing one’s union with the universe is the highest good to be attained. In contrast to the West where the realization of self is psychological and personal, in Hinduism it is spiritual and metaphysical rooted in the concept of samsara or the wheel of rebirth. The combination of the Brahma (the objective all) and the atman (the subjective or personal being) makes the ultimate reality, which is the Brahma-Atman. True union with the Brahma is the ultimate state of being for the person, the mystical experience of entering nirvana. When the soul knows that it exists in union with the Brahma, it has reached the highest state of being. So, The Upanishads define a monotheistic principle, the Brahma, to cover the various seemingly polytheistic expressions of the Hindu gods.
The Brahmans are the priestly caste, the religious elite, and at one point historically the institution of Hinduism (including the priests) became more important than the gods. The Brahma was the holy or godly power and presence, which the priests could invoke and manipulate with their sacrificial rituals, and they took their name, Brahmans, to indicate their contact with the godly power. Once living in settled villages, the people built temples, and full-time priests were named. As priestly rituals became more sophisticated, people believed in the efficacy of the rituals, and the Brahmans became the center of religious life. The religious focus shifted more from the other world to this world, and the utterance of prayers and the ritual services became more important than the gods themselves.
During the period of 500 to 200 B.C.E. when Jainism and Buddhism developed and grew, Hinduism lost followers to the new religions. Slowly Hinduism borrowed some of the new religious ideas and evolved into its classic form. The practice of developing a person’s potential as a spiritual being is called yoga. According to Huston Smith,
The word yoga derives from the same root as does the English word yoke, and yoke
carries a double connotation: to unite (yoke together), and to place under disciplined training (to bring under the yoke or ‘take my yoke upon you’). Both connotations are present in the Sanskrit word. Defined generally, then, yoga is a method of training designed to lead to integration or union.
Three paths to God have been commonly followed in Hinduism: the way of knowledge, the way of devotion or love, and the way of deeds or work. Although each led to a different way of worship, each emphasizes the limitations on physical desires as a precondition to entering Nirvana.
For people who are oriented toward knowing as a means of understanding life and God the path to spiritual fulfillment is the way of knowledge. According to this path, ignorance is the cause of evil and suffering for humans, and the awareness of the union with the Brahma is the desired spiritual state. It is the knowledge of having reached the union with Brahma that indicates that one has escaped the wheel of life. This intellectual approach to salvation was more important among the priests and the elite.
The popular path followed by the common people in India to spiritual fulfillment has been the way of devotion. This means devotion to one of the manifestations of god (Shiva, Vishnu, etc.), doing puja or systematic worship rituals at their shrines, pilgrimages, and other acts of worship. Puja is the act of showing reverence to a god or aspect of the divine through prayer, songs, or rituals. Bhakti is the devotion to one of the gods in response to help received or help that is requested. The god can also aid the devotee in their quest for deliverance from this life, so devotion to the god is the way to salvation. People seek union with the divine using the ritual of worship as the mechanism for their union. The Bhagavad Gita is one of the early expressions of the way of devotion, and it teaches that bhakti is the only sure way to gain salvation.
The way of deeds or work is built on the existing idea of karma, which says that the way one led their life will determine their chance for deliverance through reincarnation. It is also built on the traditional Indian beliefs in ahimsa (non-violence) and dharma (good conduct). Various sets of laws of correct behavior are developed to lead the faithful along the right path of good behavior. The most famous of these is the Code of Manu, prepared about 200 B.C.E. These codes define the rituals that a faithful Hindu should carry out to live the way of deeds successfully.
The many gods of Hinduism have evolved into a set of five gods, which are most important today, including the remote god-principle Brahma, the two most popular gods Shiva and Vishnu, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, and the goddess Devi. Some of these
gods have multiple expressions, especially Vishnu and Devi.
energy.
Today, Shiva represents the life force, and his representation in shrines is the linga, a short phallic shaped column in black stone. The linga is set in a recessed circle carved in the yoni, which is a flat stone that forms the base. The yoni represents Parvati, the consort of Shiva. These symbols of the organs of life generation are placed at the center of shrines dedicated to Shiva, and they are decorated with substances that represent life such as milk and flowers.
Shiva’s life energy is shown in dance, and he is known as the dancing god. In this manifestation he is portrayed in a dancing pose with four arms whirling gracefully and one leg lifted in the air in movement. Shiva is also the patron of ascetics and holy men, and this side of Shiva draws from his power to control or negate the desires of the flesh to permit his spiritual being to express itself. This power makes him a model for ascetics. Through austerity, his ascetic devotees can generate greater spiritual depth within themselves. So, Shiva has followers who are devoted to the celebration of life, and those who are dedicated to asceticism. Shiva gives strength to both.
(warrior goddess destroying evil), Parvati (consort of Shiva), Radha (who loved Krishna), Lakshimi (wife of Vishnu), or Sita (wife of Rama).
Parvati is the consort of Shiva, and she has many different expressions in the different regions of India. She is the great mother to some, the gracious and kind one to others, and the unapproachable to others. In northeastern India in the area of Bengal, people are devoted to Parvati as the great Mother, and that devotion has developed into shaktism or the adoration of the godliness of female qualities. Parvati is at once Mother Earth with the life giving qualities of the earth goddess, and at the same time her worship can be directed toward sexual fertility.
Vishnu’s appearances on earth are called avatars, and there have been nine throughout history. The tenth will mark the end of the world. Vishnu’s most important manifestation is Krishna, the blue lord, who makes the most important statements in Hindu theology about the importance of obeying caste obligations. Krishna is also seen as a playful god who takes on human qualities on earth and falls in love with earthly women. He is also portrayed as paying homage to Shiva as the supreme lord. Vishnu also descended once as a dwarf to defeat a demon-king who had gotten control of the world; once as a fish to rescue the first man, Manu, from a flood; once as a tortoise to hold up a legendary mountain as the gods produced immortality for themselves; once as a boar to pull the earth out of the sea into, which it had fallen; once as a lion who killed a father who would not let his son worship Vishnu; once as a Brahman who defeated the warrior caste and established the Brahmans as the most powerful caste; once as Gautama the founder of Buddhism; and once as Rama the ideal man and husband in the epic Indian story of the Ramayana. The tenth avatar of Vishnu is said to be Kalki, a saving figure with a flaming sword who will come on a white horse to destroy evil and to rescue the faithful. That final saving avatar of Vishnu will be the culmination of history for the devotees of Vishnu.
by Shiva. It was a virgin birth. Skanda, on the other hand, was born from Shiva and the constellation of the Pleiades. Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, is one of the most popular gods in India today. Ganesha is the Remover of Obstacles because he has the strength of the elephant, and because of that strength, he can virtually guarantee success in any venture. So, many people are his devotees and seek his help in reaching their goals in work and other areas of life. People turn to Ganesha to help them with their university studies, with an exam, or with business projects because of his reputation for helping people reach their goals. Skanda is usually shown carrying a spear in one hand and embracing a peacock or other fowl with the other arm, and historically he has been associated with war.
The Hindus have developed many avenues of expressing their devotion to the supernatural with one of the most complex metaphysical systems of all human groups. Hinduism ranges from the meditation and asceticism to the visceral world of the Kama Sutra. The love affairs of Krishna with earthly women and the sexual representations of Shiva and Parvati in shrines make Hinduism the most visceral of the major world religions. Hinduism is a pluralistic religion that has made room for many diverse human needs, and it blends into the other two great religious traditions of India: Jainism and Buddhism.
Taking pilgrimages to sacred sites is one of the most important religious acts in India, and people travel extensively throughout the country to bathe in sacred waters or visit sacred places. The epic poem, the Mahabharata, which narrates events from 800 and 900 B.C.E., tells of 270 pilgrimage shrines around India, which formed a circuit of the entire country, making India a sacred landscape. The holiest of all landmarks in India is the Ganges River, called Mother Ganga. It is said to come from heaven from the feet of Vishnu, then falling on Shiva’s head and flowing out of his hair. Four locations along the Ganges are the most important pilgrimage sites. One is Hardwar where the Ganges emerges ice cold from the Himalayas, and people gather there to bathe in the freshest of water. Going down the Ganges, the second holy place is the union of the Jumna River with the Ganges at Allahabad, the location of one of the famous religious festivals or melas. The third holy
place is the city of Benares, the city of light. Benares is the great city of learning, a city of temples and shrines, and it is here that most people prefer to bathe away their spiritual failings. The fourth holy place is the mouth of the Ganges as it empties into the Bay of Bengal, especially important is the island of Saugor, the site of an annual bathing festival. The most famous of those pilgrimage sites is Allahabad, located at the confluence of the Ganges and Jumna Rivers. Not only is this the site of an important annual religious festival, but every twelfth year an extraordinary festival is celebrated, called the Kumbh Mela, or sacred festival. Kumbh Melas are celebrated in four different Indian cities, and the one at Allahabad attracts the largest number of celebrants of any religious event in the world. The Kumbh Melas are the most sacred pilgrimage festivals in Hinduism. At the last Kumbh Mela at Allahabad in 2001, as many as eighteen or twenty million people visited the festival. People bathe in the Ganges, visit shrines to give offerings, teach, and meditate. Although the Kumbh Mela festival dates from the ninth century, the four places
where it is held may have been pilgrimage sites even before that.
The confluence of the Jumna and Ganges Rivers was viewed by the Hindus as the mythical creation point of the universe like Eridu in Mesopotamia, Hierakonpolis in Egypt, or Teotihua¬can in Mesoamerica. It was thought to be the site of the primordial mound of creation, which symbolically re-emerged each year as the flood waters subsided during the festival period. This was the navel of the earth, the point where heaven and earth had been joined together, an axis mundi, a world axis point. A sacred tree stood here that was observed by Hsuan Tsang, and it was still alive as late as the seventeenth century. Nearby was a shrine to the serpent that protected the tree.
There are many layers to Indian religious life and sectarian differences that make up the metaphysical landscape of this country. Meditation, pilgrimage, offerings, festivals, and worship all form part of the Indian cultural practice of religion. To understand religion in India is to understand the layers of religious insight, spiritual development, and historical experience that can be found in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. These latter two religions developed as heresies out of Hinduism, and for centuries many Indians followed them as more enlightened than the original Hinduism. Both Jainism and Buddhism reacted against the sometimes hedonistic qualities of Hinduism, and Jainism especially emphasizes asceticism. These new religions radically reformed Hinduism traditions and challenged Hinduism itself to evolve to a new level.
When the Brahmans (the priestly caste) gained control of Indian society in the seventh
and eighth centuries B.C.E., they gave themselves the position of highest status and honor within the caste system. The Kshatriya (governing and warrior) caste people had been the dominant group in Vedic India (1000 to 1500 B.C.E.), but this move by the Brahmans eclipsed their social position. Following this, two leaders of the Kshatriya caste, Mahavira (Jainism) and Gautama (Buddhism) arose to challenge the religious order created by the Brahmans, and they found many followers. This was a period of profound questioning and re-evaluation of Indian culture and metaphysics. The Indo-Europeans had established themselves in India one thousand years before, and in that time period they had gone through radical changes from a nomadic, herding life to an agricultural one. The population had grown in density, and villages dotted the Ganges Plain. While the Brahmans were making intellectual adaptations in their understanding of the spiritual world, the larger society needed answers that gave more direction on how to live everyday life. Jainism and Buddhism would address those issues and create a role for non-Brahman spiritual leaders.
Buddhism. In India, Buddhism became a popular religion in the centuries following Gautama’s death. During the Mauryan Empire the Emperor Asoka (269 to 232 B.C.E.) encouraged the teaching of Buddhism, and he saw its potential as a world religion. He sent teacher-monks as missionaries, first to Sri Lanka and then later to the Middle East as far as Egypt and Greece and throughout Asia. The greatest impact of Buddhism was to be in Asia where it become a major religion in Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, and southeast Asia. After Asoka’s death the support for Buddhism declined in India, and the Brahmin caste re- asserted its influence and re-established Hinduism as the dominant religious practice in the country. Later, during the Gupta Empire the rulers were Hindus, and although Buddhism continued to be practiced, its importance was diminished. Eventually, it was absorbed into Hinduism, and today Gautama is considered to be one of the ten manifestations on earth (avatars) of the Hindu god Vishnu.
Janism. Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599 to 527 B.C.E.). As mentioned above, he was a Kshatriya born to a luxurious life, and his father is said to have been a rajah or king. At the age of thirty after the death of his parents, he decided to leave his wealth and become a mendicant monk to dedicate himself to spirituality. He borrowed his basic religious ideas (asceticism and ahimsa) from Hinduism, but he gave a different emphasis to each. Like Hindus, Jains also use religious figures in their worship, and they chant mantras and meditate to reach spiritual fulfillment.
Mahavira thought that the only way to avoid defiling the soul was through extreme asceticism and he initially retained only one robe to wear, then abandoned even that as being more material goods than he needed. He took a vow to neglect his body in the search for spiritual enlightenment and to not let the discomforts of the flesh detract from
his spiritual quest. He wandered nude from village to village in the quest for deliverance (Moksha) from the cycle of rebirth. He underwent many disgraces, but he refused to allow them to distract him. Villagers at different times cut him, set fire to his feet, tore out his hair, and drove nails into his ears, but his discipline was so great that he did not flinch and maintained his attitude of meditation.
Mahavira also pledged himself to an extreme practice of ahimsa or non-violence, which meant taking great care not to harm any living being. Like Hindus, Jains believe in the cycle of rebirth, and they interpret that as meaning that every living form is a soul in the cycle. No animal is to be killed to insure that the soul has its proper lifetime. During the rainy season when the roads had mud puddles where life might form, he would not travel to avoid unsuspectingly killing insects or other forms. During the dry season he carried a broom to sweep the path before him to avoid unwittingly stepping on and killing bugs or insects. He carried a cloth to strain water to avoid drinking any living thing, and he covered his nose with a cloth to not breath in anything that flew. After twelve years of careful practice of asceticism and ahimsa he reached Nirvana and became a Jina or Conqueror because he gained victory over his body. Following that, he began to teach his experience to others.
The practice of Jainism is summed up by the Five Great Vows for monks, which define asceticism.
To renounce the killing of all living things.
To renounce lying.
To only take what has been given.
To renounce all sexual pleasure.
To renounce any attachment to life.
Another set of rules for lay people adjusts these principles slightly and defines a lesser version of asceticism for them. Meditation is very important in the Jain tradition, and people are encouraged to control their physical being to allow spiritual fulfillment and deliverance from this life. There are few Jains (four million) in India today, perhaps because of the extreme asceticism of the group.
Although there are elements of monotheism in Hinduism (i.e. the belief in Brahma), other monotheistic religions are practiced in India of, which Islam is the largest with 100 million followers, making India the fourth largest Muslim country in the world. Christianity is also practiced, but it is one of the smallest of Indian religions. There are
two locally based monotheistic religions: Sikhism and Zoroastrianism, and both have Middle Eastern roots.
Guru Nanak referred to God as the “True One” to avoid using any name associated with an existing religion, such as Allah. Sikhism is characterized by monotheism and close attention to the scriptures, know as Adi Granth. Sikhs also believe in the cycle of rebirth, and they believe that it can only be ended when a soul has entered into unity with God. Guru Nanak’s statement, “There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim” is frequently repeated by Sikhs meaning that all people are equal before God. Women and men are equal in Sikhism, and the social cohesion of the group is shown in the fact that all men use the name Singh and women the name Kur as one of their names. People are encouraged to be kind to all people and living things and to always tell the truth because God is truth. Sikhs follow the five K’s as the guide to everyday life.
Kesh (Uncut hair). Leaving one’s hair uncut and long symbolizes God’s will, and both men and women wear their hair long. Men bind up their hair in a cloth, which they wrap as a turban around their head.
Kangha (Comb). The comb represents control over spirituality just as it is used to
control one’s hair. The spiritual life should be orderly and groomed.
Kirpan (Steel dagger). The daggers stands for the willingness of the believer to defend the faith, the truth. Although the defense of the faith should be shown through ones life and behavior, it should also include the determination to defend it physically if necessary.
Kachi (Undergarment). This is a symbol of moral strength, and a similar concept is known in the Judeo-Christian tradition in the expression, “Gird up your loins” in preparation for action.
Khanda (Double edged sword). The double edged sword represents truth (God) and justice (this life). Two swords curve around a circle, and the swords symbolize God’s spiritual and earthly power. The circle represents the unity of the faith and the faithful.
Sikhs have a unique ethnic identity focused around their religion. Some of the eighteen million Sikhs would like to have independence and break away from India, creating yet another point of conflict in the complex world of Indian religious and ethnic pluralism.
Although Zoroastrianisn is not a widespread religion, it is important historically because of its role in the Middle East during the thousand years before the rise of Islam and the contact that the pre-Islamic Arabs had with it. Zoroastrianism is a Persian (Iranian) religion, and it has interesting parallels with Judaism and anticipates aspects of Islam. Zoroastrians explained the presence of evil in the world as coming from the devil figure, Ahriman, who was malevolent and led the forces of wickedness. The righteous life among Zoroastrians is one of caring and kindness toward others and generosity to all, especially the poor. The struggle between good and evil occurs in the soul of each person, and evil is symbolized by worshiping untrue gods and the practice of magic. They believe that a struggle between the forces of good and evil will go on until the end of the world when Ahura-Mazda will triumph over Ahriman and cast him into the abyss of the underworld. Zarathustra taught that there would be a judgment day after death, and people who follow the teachings of Ahura-Mazda will go to the blessed place in the afterlife, and all others will be doomed to fire and torment. Each soul will face the judgment of crossing the great Bridge of the Separator, which connects earth with Paradise and crosses above the chasm of Hell. Ahura Mazda sits in judgment as souls cross
the bridge, sending those weighted down with evil into the abyss of hell and letting into Paradise those who were good in this life.
After the Muslim Arabs completed their conquest of Persia in 651, the Zoroastrians lost their traditional place of importance in the society. Although the Arabs did not immediately pressure them to convert, over the next century many of the Zoroastrians migrated to the more religiously tolerant world of India where they were called Parsis (from Persian). Zoroastrianism continues to survive in India today as a small sect in Mumbai (formerly Bombay). In contemporary India, they are frequently wealthy and have a reputation of being benefactors of social and cultural activities. Both men and women wear European style dress, frequently with some traditional garment added to the combination. They are known as excellent business men and control some of India’s most important industries. Although Zoroastrianism still exists and its members are generally successful, it has ceased to be a major religious presence in the world.
After the spread of the internationalizing influences of global culture in the latter decades of the twentieth century, the peoples of the Indian subcontinent have experienced increased radicalism in religion as the faithful of each religion have re- affirmed their traditions. Today, fundamentalist Muslim forces are strong in parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan, and they sometimes take intransigent positions in relation to India. Within India itself, fundamentalist Hindus have become a powerful voice in governing the country, and religious tolerance has frequently been forgotten in the zeal of re-affirming their sectarian traditions and beliefs. India once again could face the challenge that it has confronted so many times in its history: a fragmentation into self- contained groups that have little to say to each other. Although many Hindus see life as a voyage through the world of metaphysical experience, sectarian differences frequently reduce that life to the menial human struggles of Hindus and Muslims fighting each other.
Appendices
Rig Veda
This creation hymn says that existence and space began the following way.
“There was neither non-existence nor existence then; there was neither the realm of space nor the sky, which is beyond. What stirred? Where? In whose protection? Was
there water, bottomlessly deep?
“There was neither death nor immorality then. There was no distinguishing sign of night nor of day. That one breathed, windless, by its own impulse. Other than that there was nothing beyond.
“Darkness was hidden by darkness in the beginning; with no distinguishing sign, all this was water. The life force that was covered with emptiness, that one arose through the power of heat.
“Desire came upon that one in the beginning; that was the first seed of mind. Poets
seeking in their heart with wisdom found the bond of existence in non-existence.
“Their cord was extended across. Was there below? Was there above? There were seed-placers; there were powers. There was impulse beneath; there was giving-forth above.
“Who really know? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen?
“Whence this creation has arisen--perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not--the one who looks down on it, in the highest heaven, only he knows--or perhaps he does not know.”
Bhagavad Gita
Krishna tells Arjuna how to recognize a person who has become one with the Brahma. AHe knows bliss in the Atman
And wants nothing else. Cravings torment the heart: He renounces cravings,
I call him illumined.
Not shaken by adversity,
Not hankering after happiness: Free from fear, free from anger, Free from the things of desire,
I call him a seer, and illumined.
The bonds of his flesh are broken. He is lucky, and does not rejoice:
He is unlucky, and does not weep.
I call him illumined.
The tortoise can draw in its legs:
The seer can draw in his senses. I call him illumined...
When he has no lust, no hatred,
A man walks safely among the things of lust and hatred. To obey the Atman
Is his peaceful joy; Sorrow melts
Into that clear peace:
His quiet mind
Is soon established in peace...
This is the state of enlightenment in Brahman:
A man does not fall back from it Into delusion.
Even at the moment of death
He is alive in that enlightenment:
Brahman and he are one.
Kumbh Mela Festivals
The Kumbh Mela festivals are the largest pilgrimage events in Hinduism, and they are the most sacred. Millions of people, young and old, men and women, lay and religious, attend these festivals. The purpose is to bathe in the sacred waters during a time that has an auspicious astrological reading. According to tradition, in the beginning of time the gods struggled over a jar that contained a precious potion that would give immortality. During the struggle four drops of the potion fell to earth, one landing at Prayag (today Allahabad), one at Hardwar, one at Nasik, and one at Ujjain, making each of these blessed places. Kumbh means pot or jar and refers to the jar that held the elixir of immortality. Bathing in the waters of these four pilgrimage sites, cleanses the body and spirit and can ease the process of re-birth. These four sites are also considered to be the most propitious sites to die, and people want to be taken to these sites if they are near death. Some practice ritual suicide to guarantee dying in a place that will aid them in the transition into the next life. Given that millions of people are trying to reach the river to bathe on special festival
days, there have been accidents in, which people have been trammeled or drown in the press of humanity.
Ritual bathing is the center point of the festival, but people also engage in religious discussions, theological debates, devotional singing, and feeding of the poor. Since the Kumbh Melas are especially sacred events, thousands of holy men and women attend. The most holy are known as nagas, and they show they holiness through asceticism, which means they eschew material possessions such as clothes.
The timing of the festivals is based on the position of Jupiter, and it is in a different position for each of the four sites. The last Kumbh Mela in Allahabad was 2001, and the next will be in 2012 and 2024. The last in Hardwar was 1998, and the next will be in 2010 and 2021. The last festival in Nasik was 2003, and the next will be in 2015 and 2027. In Ujjain the dates are 2004, 2016, and 2028. Allahabad is the largest with as many as eighteen to twenty million people attending. Hardwar is next with ten million or more people. Nasik and Ujjain are smaller with attendance in the range of five to six million.
About the Author
Ron Duncan Hart, Ph.D., is a cultural anthropologist from Indiana University with postdoctoral work at the University of Oxford. He is the Director of the Institute for Tolerance Studies and a former University Vice-President. Hart has written books on Crypto- Jews, Jews and the Arab World, and Sephardic Jews. He has spoken widely as an invited lecturer on Jewish life and culture at universities and other venues. He is a former President of the Jewish Federation of New Mexico.
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